Measuring Social Cohesion: The Case of a Demographically Changing Community in the United States

By Dina Refki, Esther Kim, Rukhsana Ahmed, Jeanette Altarriba & Kyunghyun Park

This study investigates how demographic diversification influences perceptions of social cohesion within a historically homogeneous, rural community in the Northeastern United States. As many U.S. regions experience population decline and gradual diversification, understanding the social dynamics that accompany these demographic changes becomes crucial for maintaining community wellbeing and social harmony.

This research had two main objectives:

1. To adapt, test and validate an instrument capable of measuring social cohesion in a U.S. context
2. To assess how race, gender and nativity status — and their intersections — shape perceptions of trust, belonging and orientation to the common good among community members

Social cohesion is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct encompassing three core domains:

1. Social Relations: Social networks, interpersonal trust and acceptance of diversity
2. Emotional Connectedness: Sense of belonging, trust in institutions and perceived fairness
3. Orientation to the Common Good: Respect for social rules, helpfulness and civic participation

The study adapts the Social Cohesion Radar model developed by Dragolov et al. (2013), and grounds its analysis in Social Dominance Theory (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) and Intersectionality Theory (Crenshaw, 1989). These frameworks posit that increasing diversity can activate social hierarchies and inequalities, especially affecting individuals with intersecting marginalized identities (e.g., women of color, foreign-born minorities).

A two-phase, mixed-methods design was implemented: 

• In Phase 1 - Instrument Adaptation & Pilot (n = 250): Community experts reviewed and refined survey items for regional and cultural relevance. Pilot data were analyzed for validity and reliability (overall Cronbach’s α = .866). Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the multidimensional structure of social cohesion.
• In Phase 2 - Data Collection & Analysis (n = 490): Surveys were distributed via online, email, and telephone methods. Statistical analyses included correlations, t-tests, ANOVA, and regression modeling to assess differences by gender, race, and nativity status and the interaction of these variables.

The study’s region included four counties experiencing population decline among White, non-Hispanic residents and growth among Hispanic, Asian, and Black residents. Foreign-born populations ranged from 1% to 8% across counties — representing nascent diversity typical of rural America.

Findings Reveal Gender & Racial-based Differences

Women scored higher than men on social networks, trust in people, individual acceptance of diversity, and helpfulness. Men scored higher only on group-level acceptance of diversity. 

These findings indicate that women maintain stronger social connections, greater interpersonal trust, and a higher willingness to engage in informal community support activities. 

Black respondents reported significantly lower trust in people and institutions than white or Asian participants, reflecting the persistence of racial hierarchies and social distance. However, Black participants demonstrated higher levels of political participation, consistent with research linking political engagement to group consciousness and the pursuit of equity (“linked fate”).  

Additionally, native-born residents exhibited lower confidence in community acceptance of diversity than foreign-born participants, revealing skepticism about inclusiveness within their region. Foreign-born participants were more likely to perceive their community as open to diversity and difference.

There were also Intersectional Effects. 

Nonwhite women reported lower social networks and trust in others, while nonwhite foreign-born individuals expressed the lowest trust in people overall. 

Female newcomers showed higher levels of political participation, suggesting agency and civic engagement despite potential isolation. These findings affirm that intersecting marginalized identities compound experiences of exclusion.

Takeaways & Next Steps

The study provides empirical evidence that nascent diversification can activate dynamics of social inequality, dominance, and distance within communities unused to demographic change. 

Men and dominant-group members (primarily white and native-born) displayed less interpersonal trust and community engagement. Women and marginalized groups exhibited both greater social connectedness and heightened vulnerability to social exclusion. 

Black residents and nonwhite foreign-born individuals experienced lower trust in people and institutions — hallmarks of weakened social cohesion. The data underscore how emerging heterogeneity can expose latent biases and test the resilience of social bonds within transitioning communities.

We acknowledge a few limitations. The study’s participant pool was predominantly White and native-born, reflecting the regional demographics but limiting analysis of minority subgroups. Data collection through landline and online surveys may have underrepresented younger, transient, or less-connected populations. 

Future research should Integrate qualitative interviews to contextualize perceptions of trust, belonging and fairness, and explore how virtual or non-geographic communities shape social cohesion in the digital era. Future studies should also examine how socioeconomic status and education interact with demographic characteristics to influence cohesion. 

The findings carry important implications for policymakers, local leaders and community organizations seeking to foster inclusion in diversifying regions.

Interventions should narrow the social distance between newcomers and long-term residents through inclusive engagement, dialogue and community-based initiatives. Attention to Capacity-building in civic institutions can promote fairness, trust, and belonging among all groups. Monitoring social cohesion using validated tools like the adapted Social Cohesion Instrument can help track changes and guide responsive policy in real time.

The study contributes a validated and context-sensitive tool for measuring social cohesion in U.S. communities experiencing early demographic change. It highlights how gender, race and nativity shape trust, belonging and perceptions of fairness. 

Overall, the findings reveal that social cohesion depends on equitable inclusion and mutual recognition across social divides. As rural and semi-rural regions diversify, proactive strategies are essential to prevent isolation, strengthen trust and foster a collective sense of “we.”

This research deepens understanding of how demographic transformation affects the lived experience of community membership and offers a foundation for policy and practice aimed at sustaining cohesive, inclusive communities.