Study Finds ‘Smartphone-Only’ Internet Access Deepens Digital Inequality
ALBANY, N.Y. (Feb. 26, 2026) — A new study examining digital behavior in Taiwan suggests that simply having internet access is no longer enough to ensure digital inclusion — a finding with growing implications for the United States as governments, schools and employers continue shifting services online.
The research, led by UAlbany’s Center for Technology in Government (CTG UAlbany) and published in Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy, finds that people who rely exclusively on smartphones to access the internet engage in significantly fewer online activities than those who use multiple devices such as laptops or desktop computers. The gap is especially pronounced in online transactions, including interactions with government agencies, banking and shopping.
While the study focuses on Taiwan — a country with near-universal internet access — the authors say the findings highlight a quieter, second layer of digital inequality that is likely present in other high-connectivity countries, including the U.S.
“Access alone doesn’t guarantee meaningful participation,” said J. Ramon Gil-Garcia, director of CTG UAlbany and professor of public administration and policy at the Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy. “If people can only interact with digital services through a smartphone, they may still face real limitations in how fully they can engage with government, education and economic opportunities.”
A hidden divide in a mobile-first world
For decades, discussions about the digital divide focused on whether people had internet access at all. As connectivity expanded through devices such as mobile phones, many policymakers assumed the problem had largely been solved.
The new study challenges that assumption.
Using nationally representative survey data from more than 9,500 Taiwanese residents, the researchers compared “smartphone-only” users with “multimodal” users who access the internet through multiple devices. After controlling for factors such as age, income, education and digital skills, smartphone-only users consistently engaged in fewer types of online activities.
That pattern held across both everyday internet use and digital government services.
“Smartphones are incredibly powerful tools, but they’re not functionally equivalent to having access to a computer,” said Zong-Xian Huang, a graduate researcher with CTG UAlbany and PhD student at Rockefeller College. “Tasks that involve forms, transactions or complex navigation are simply harder to complete on a phone. That shapes what people end up doing or avoiding online.”
Why Taiwan offers lessons for the U.S.
Taiwan provides a useful test case because its digital infrastructure mirrors conditions found in many advanced economies. Internet access there reaches roughly 90 percent of the population. Government services, banking and education are widely digitized.
If meaningful gaps persist under those conditions, the authors argue, they are likely to exist in the United States and other highly connected nations as well.
In the U.S., millions of adults rely primarily on smartphones for internet access. This particularly includes lower-income households, older residents and some rural populations. Prior research has shown that smartphone-only access is more common among groups already facing economic and social disadvantages.
The new findings suggest that mobile-only access may unintentionally limit people’s ability to fully participate in civic and economic life, even when services are technically “available online.”
“This is not just a Taiwan issue,” Gil-Garcia said. “As governments move more services online, we need to be careful not to assume that one form of access works equally well for everyone.”
Transactions pose the biggest barriers
Not all online activities showed the same gaps. Smartphone-only users were nearly as active as multimodal users on social media and internet calling — areas where mobile platforms are well optimized.
The largest disparities emerged in transactional activities, including online banking, shopping and interactions with government agencies.
“These are exactly the kinds of activities tied to financial stability, economic participation, and access to public benefits,” Huang said. “When people are less able or less likely to complete them online, it can reinforce existing inequalities rather than reduce them.”
The study raises important questions for policymakers who view digitalization as a universal solution for improving efficiency and access.
Expanding broadband access remains critical, the authors note, but may not be sufficient if device limitations and usability barriers are ignored. Designing mobile-friendly government platforms, providing access to additional devices and offering targeted digital skills training could help narrow the gap.
The findings also suggest that digital services can sometimes shift administrative burden rather than eliminate it. Citizens may face new burdens, including the need to have suitable devices and learn new digital skills to use online services.
“Digital transformation has enormous potential,” Gil-Garcia said. “But if we don’t pay attention to how people actually access and use these systems, we risk creating new barriers while trying to remove old ones.”