BIO
530A Spring 2004
Biodiversity and Conservation:
Theoretical Issues
Meets Tu
5:45-8:35, BIO 248B
Instructor:
George
Robinson Rm 253B Biology Tel: 2-4302
Office
Hours: Wed. 2:30-4:00 or by appointment.
Contributing Instructors: Chris D’Elia,
Gary Kleppel
Required text: Meffe G., and R. Carroll. 1997.
Principles of Conservation Biology
2nd
Edition.
Sinauer, Sunderland MA.
Also
required: Wilson, E.O.
2002. The Future of Life. Vintage Books, NY.
(Both
available in campus Bookstore and Mary Jane Books)
Supplemental readings will accompany most text chapters. Required supplemental readings will be
available to read, copy, or download. A
fuller bibliography is attached below.
Grading (100 points
total):
Three
study questions, 10 points each (30 total)
One
book review, 10 points
Preparation
of discussion of one scientific paper, 10 points
Research
group project contribution, 40 points
General
participation in class activities, 10 points
Schedule of Topics and
readings (Subject to change with notice)
[NOTE:
All readings listed in the course schedule are required in advance — they will
be discussed on the day announced.]
Date Lecture Topic Lab/Discussion
1/27 COURSE
INTRODUCTION Discuss readings
Readings: The Future of Life (Ch
1-4) Schedule paper
discussions
Values
survey
Introduce Group Project
2/3 Historical perspectives on conservation
biology;
Values and ethics Discuss readings
Readings: The Future of Life (Ch
5-7); Plan group projects
TEXT ch. 1-2; #53, 63 Values survey results
2/10 Biodiversity
losses and the extinction record
Readings:
TEXT ch. 5; #17, 25, 81, 85, 187, 209 Discuss
readings
Plan group projects
Book
Review due
Study
Question 1 distributed
2/24 The species concept and the ESA Discuss readings
Readings:
TEXT ch. 3; #15, 81, 85, 152, 209, 231 Plan
group projects
Study Question 1 due Discuss
study question
3/2 Measuring biodiversity
Readings:
TEXT ch. 4; Discuss readings
#107, 112, 121, 214 Video on NYS Gap
Project
Plan group projects
Study
Question 2 distributed Methods
laboratory
3/9 Biological invasions Discuss readings
Readings: TEXT ch. 5; #104, 190, 212, 232,
235 Plan group projects
3/16 Conservation Genetics Discuss readings
Demography of vulnerable populations Plan group projects
Readings:
TEXT ch. 6, 7; #5, 88, 97, 140, 151 Simulation
exercises
Study
Question 2 due Discuss study question
3/23 Habitat fragmentation Discuss readings
Design of nature preserves Plan
group projects
Readings:
TEXT ch. 9, 10; # 98, 134, 167, 228 Group
Project progress reports
Study Question 3 handed out
[Mar. 25-26 Conference on Invertebrate
Conservation, AMNH]
[March 26-28 Northeast
Ecology and Evolution Conference, Storrs]
3/30 Biodiversity and ecosystem function Discuss
readings
Readings:
TEXT ch. 8; Plan group projects
#76, 78, 105, 123, 196, 208 Methods laboratory.
4/13 Ecological Restoration Discuss
readings
Readings: TEXT ch. 14; #52, 229, 236 Plan group projects
Group Project progress reports
Study Question 3 due Discuss study question
4/20 Human population growth Discuss readings
Sustainable development Wrap
up group projects
Readings: Text Ch. 18; Methods
laboratory
# 10, 32, 33, 49, 74, 122, 137, 191
4/27 Land use planning Discuss readings
Conservation management Review project reports
Readings: Text Ch. 11-13
#18,
51, 82, 154, 168
Group Project reports due
5/4 Bad Science, Pseudoscience and conservation Discuss readings
Readings:
TEXT ch. 19; Group Project critique
#53, 132, 197, 220, 237
Group Project process assessment
due
Course format
1. Lectures and class preparation
Most
class periods will begin with a lecture designed to introduce the scheduled
topic. Lectures will be presented by
course instructors and occasional guest experts from outside our department or
university. The order of lecture topics
may change, depending on the pace of the course and scheduling of guests. Plan to attend all classes. Skipping one is equivalent to missing a full
week of material. COME PREPARED: Read all required materials in advance; bring
questions to the table; when you are in charge of choosing and discussing a
scientific paper, make it available at least one week in advance; prepare notes
and background on your chosen paper; contribute your fair share to your group
project in a timely manner.
2. Discussions/labs
During
and after lectures we will discuss pending topics, as well as assignments and
projects. All students are responsible
for every phase of topic discussion. In
other words, you may be called on to participate at any time, based on readings
and any experience or ideas you wish to introduce. Every student will be also required to lead a discussion of one
scientific paper. Several labs/demos
will be given on ecological modeling and analytical techniques. These are aimed to give insight into
techniques for collecting and analyzing biological data relevant to
conservation. Some may form the basis
of study questions or provide tools for group projects.
Assignments and Examinations
1. Study Questions
Three
study questions will be assigned. These
will be analytical exercises, problem sets, or essay questions, designed to
focus on key aspects of relationships between ecological theory and biological
conservation.
2. Book Review
After
reading and discussing Wilson’s, The Future of Life, prepare a
journal-style book review, written for an audience of peers (graduate
students). General format: 500-1,000
words, double-spaced, professional style (consult Book Review sections in
scientific journals for examples). You
may consult published reviews of the book, but I have found that it is better
to write your main draft before doing so; reading another’s review tends to
stifle your creative juices.
3.
Discussion of one scientific paper
Locate one scientific paper related
to biological conservation, make copies available to the class, and lead a
discussion of that work. Selections
should not be made from already designated course readings. Either choose a paper from the supplemental
list, or find an alternative that interests you. As part of this assignment, prepare background notes (on the
paper’s topic and on its authors) and discussion questions to distribute at the
start of discussion.
4.
Group Research Project.
We
will choose several research questions, based on current problems in
conservation of biological diversity.
In small groups (3-6 students), we will plan a strategy for refining the
question, obtaining pertinent information, and analyzing our findings. Each group member will choose a part of the
problem, and carry out necessary research, such as database searches, personal
interviews, reviews of case studies, data analysis, and data verification. Groups will report to the class at frequent
intervals to check progress and receive advice and assistance. The final reports from each group will be
published on a Web site, and we hope than one or more of the projects will lead
to external publications and contribute to significant conservation issues. Our goal is to identify and take on
real-life, relevant issues that can be reasonably addressed in a few months.
The keys to success are (1) choosing a well-focused, accessible topic, (2)
active and timely participation by all members, and (3) constant feedback and
evaluation of progress. More
information and advice on report preparation and format will be provided later
in the semester.
FOR
ALL ASSIGNMENTS: Number pages; include name(s) and date with title; save paper
and forgo separate title pages; use no fancy binders; double-space with
12-point font; graphics and diagrams may be hand- or computer-drawn; use metric
system for all units of measure place English units in parentheses if
included); check spelling and grammar; re-used printer paper is allowed, except
for final group project report; color graphics are fine, but usually not
necessary; images downloaded from on-line sources may be used sparingly, when
highly pertinent; use a consistent style for references; do not cite your
textbook or include it in bibliographies; when referencing on-line literature,
include full URL and date downloaded.
List of
required and supplemental readings
1.
Akimoto,
H. 2003. Global air quality and pollution. Science 302: 1716-1719.
2.
Alroy,
J. 2001. A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene
megafaunal mass extinction. Science
292: 1893-1896.
3.
Andelman,
S.J., and W.F. Fagan. 2000. Umbrellas and flagships: Efficient
conservation surrogates or expensive mistakes?
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97: 5954-5959.
4.
Anderson,
J.L. 1998. Embracing uncertainty: The interface of Bayesian statistics and
cognitive psychology. Conservation Ecology [online]2: 2. URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol2/iss1/art2
5.
Ashley,
M.V. 1999. Molecular conservation genetics.
American Scientist 87: 28-35.
6.
Austin,
M.P. 1999. A silent clash of paradigms: Some inconsistencies in community
ecology. Oikos 86: 170-178.
7.
Ayensu,
E., and 24 Others. 1999. International ecosystem assessment. Science 286: 685-686.
8.
Balmford,
A., J.L. Moore, T. Brooks, N. Burges, L.A. Hansen, P. Williams, and C.
Rahbek. 2001. Conservation conflicts across Africa. Science 291: 2616-2619.
9.
Barnett,
A. 2001. Safety in Numbers. New
Scientist, 3 February 2001: 38-41.
10.
Beaugrand,
G., K.M. Brander, J.A. Lindley, S. Souissi, and P.C. Reid. 2003.
Plankton effect on cod recruitment in the North Sea. Nature 426: 661-664.
11.
Begon,
M., J.L. Harper, and C.R. Townsend.
1996. Ecology. 3rd Edition. Blackwell. [Ch 24-25]
12.
Beier,
P., and R.F. Noss. 1998. Do habitat corridors provide
connectivity? Conservation Biology 12:
1241-1252.
13.
Belovsky,
G.E., C. Mellison, C. Larson, and P.A. Van Zandt. 1999. Experimental
studies of extinction dynamics. Science
286: 1175-1177.
14.
Berger,
J, J.E. Swenson, and I-L. Persson.
2001. Recolonizing carnivores:
Conservation lessons from Pleistocene extinctions. Science 291: 1036-1039.
15.
Boersma,
P.D., P. Kareiva, W.F. Fagan, J.A. Clark, and J.M. Hoekstra. 2001.
How good are endangered species recovery plans? BioScience 51: 643-649.
16.
Botsford,
L.W., J.C. Castilla, and C.H. Peterson.
1997. The management of
fisheries and marine ecosystems.
Science 277: 509-514.
17.
Brook,
B.W., N.S. Sodhi, and P.K.L. Ng.
2003. Catastrophic extinctions
follow deforestation in Singapore.
Nature 424: 420-423.
18.
Brooks,
T.M., and Ten Others. 2002. Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots
of biodiversity. Conservation Biology
16: 909-923.
19.
Brown,
J.H., T.G. Whitham, S.K. Morgan Ernest, and C.A. Gehring. 2001.
Complex species interactions and the dynamics of ecological systems:
Long-term Experiments. Science 293:
643-650.
20.
Bruner,
A.G., R.E. Gullison, R.E. Rice, and G.A.B. da Fonseca. 2000.
Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity. Science 291: 125-128.
21.
Burney,
D.A. 1993. Recent animal extinctions: Recipes for disaster. American Scientist 81: 530-541.
22.
Burslem,
F.R.P., N.C. Garwood, and S.C. Thomas.
2001. Tropical forest diversity —
the plot thickens. Science 291:
606-607.
23.
Caicco,
S.L., J.M. Scott, B. Butterfield, and B. Csuti. 1995. A gap analysis of
the management status of the vegetation of Idaho. Conservation Biology 9: 498-511.
24.
Cardoso
da Silva, J.M., and M. Tabarelli.
2000. Tree species
impoverishment and the future flora of northeast Brazil. Nature 404: 72-74.
25.
Carlton,
J.T., J.B. Geller, M. L. Reaka-Kudla, and E.A. Norse. 1999. Historical
extinctions in the sea. Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics 30: 315-338.
26.
Carroll,
S.S., and D.L. Pearson. 2000. Detecting and modeling spatial and temporal
dependence in conservation biology.
Conservation Biology 14: 1893-1897.
27.
Chapin,
F.S. III, B.H. Walker, R.J. Hobbs, D.U. Hooper, J.H. Lawton, O.E. Sala, and D.
Tilman. 1997. Biotic control over functioning ecosystems. Science 277: 500-504.
28.
Charles,
D. 2001. Seeds of discontent.
Science 294: 772-775.
29.
Chesson,
P. 2000. Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:
343-366.
30.
Clubb,
R., and G. Mason. 2003. Captivity effects on wide-ranging carnivores. Nature 425: 473-474.
31.
Cochrane,
M.A., A. Alencar, M.D. Schultze, C.M. Souza, Jr., D.C. Nepstad, P. Lefebvre,
and E.A. Davidson. 1999. Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of
closed canopy tropical forests. Science
284: 1832-1835.
32.
Cohen,
J.E. 1995. Population growth and earth’s human carrying capacity. Science 269: 341-346.
33.
Cohen,
J.E. 2003. Human population: The next half century. Science 302: 1172-1175.
34.
Cole,
B.J., and D.C Wiernasz. 1999. The selective advantage of low relatedness. Science 285: 891-893.
35.
Coley,
P.D., and Fifteen Others. 2003. Using ecological criteria to design plant
collection strategies for drug discovery.
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1: 421-428.
36.
Collins,
J.P., A. Kinzig, N.B. Grimm, W.F. Fagan, D. Hope, J. Wu, and E.T. Boxer. 2000.
A new urban ecology. American
Scientist 88: 416-425.
37.
Coltman,
D.W., P. O’Donaghue, J.T. Jorgenson, J.T. Hogg, C. Strobeck, and M.
Festa-Blanchet. 2003. Undesirable evolutionary consequences of
trophy hunting. Nature 426: 655-658.
38.
Conroy,
M.J., and B.R. Noon. 1996. Mapping of species richness for conservation
of biological diversity: Conceptual and methodological issues. Ecological Applications 6: 763-773.
39.
Conway,
G. 2000. Genetically modified crops:
risks and promise. Conservation Ecology 4: 2. [online] URL:
http://www.consecol.org/vol4/iss1/art2
40.
Costanza,
R., H. Daly, C. Folke, P. Hawken, C.S. Holling, A.J. McMichael, D. Pimentel,
and D. Rapport. 2000. Managing our environmental portfolio. BioScience 50: 149-155.
41.
Cowen,
R.W., K. M.M. Lwiza, S. Sponaugle, C.B. Paris, and D.B. Olson. 2000.
Connectivity of marine populations: Open or closed? Science 287: 857-859
42.
Crawley,
M.J., and J.E. Harral. 2001. Scale dependence in plant biodiversity. Science 291: 864-868.
43.
Crone,
E.E., and J.L. Gehring. 1998. Population viability of Rorippa columbine: Multiple models and spatial trend data. Conservation Biology 12: 1054-1065.
44.
Cunningham,
A.A., and P. Daszak. 1998. Extinction of a land snail due to infection
with a microsporidian parasite.
Conservation Biology 12: 1139-1141.
45.
Curran,
L.M., I. Caniago, G.D. Paoli, D. Astianti, M. Kusneti, M. Leighton, C.E.
Nirarita, and H. Haeruman. 1999. Impact of El Niño and logging on canopy tree
recruitment in Borneo. Science 286:
2184-2188.
46.
Czech,
B, P.R. Kraussman, and R. Borkhataria.
1998. Social construction,
political power, and the allocation of benefits to endangered species. Conservation Biology 12: 1103-1112.
47.
Daily,
G.C., P.R. Ehrlich, and N.M. Haddad.
1992. Double keystone bird in a
keystone species complex. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 90: 592-594.
48.
Daly,
H.E. 1999. The lurking Inconsistency.
Conservation Biology 13: 693-694
49.
Daszak,
P., A.A. Cunningham, and A.D. Hyatt.
2000. Emerging infectious
diseases of wildlife-threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287: 443-449.
50.
DeDyn,
G.B., and Seven Others. 2003. Soil invertebrate fauna enhances grassland
succession and diversity. Nature 422:
711-713.
51.
Dietz,
T., E. Ostrom, and P.C. Stern.
2003. The struggle to govern the
commons. Science 302: 1907-1911.
52.
Dobson,
A.P., A.D. Bradshaw, and A.J.M. Baker.
1997. Hopes for the future:
Restoration ecology and conservation biology.
Science 277: 515-522.
53.
Ehrlich,
P.R. 2003. Bioethics: Are our priorities right? BioScience 53: 1207-1216.
54.
Elton,
C.S. 1958. The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. 2nd Edition.
Methuen, London, England.
55.
Englehardt,
K.A.M., and M.E. Ritchie. 2002. The effect of aquatic plant species richness
on wetland ecosystem processes. Ecology
83: 2911-2924.
56.
Erickson,
J.D. 1998. Sustainable development and the Adirondack experience. Adirondack Journal of Environmental Studies
5: 24-31.
57.
Esseen,
P.-A., and K.-E. Renhorn. 1998. Edge effects on an epiphytic lichen in
fragmented forests. Conservation
Biology 12: 1307-1317.
58.
Fiedler,
P.L., and S.K. Jain, editors.
1992. Conservation Biology. Chapman and Hall, New York.
59.
Fukami,
T., and P.J. Morin. 2003. Productivity-biodiversity relationships depend
on the history of community assembly.
Nature 424: 423-426.
60.
Gering,
J.C., T.O Crist, and J.A. Veech.
2003. Additive partitioning of
species diversity across multiple spatial scales: Implications for regional
conservation of biodiversity.
Conservation Biology 17: 488-499.
61.
Gibbs,
J.P., S. Droege, and P. Eagle.
1998. Monitoring populations of
plants and animals. BioScience 48:
935-940.
62.
Goklany,
I.M. 1998. Saving habitat and conserving biodiversity on a crowded
planet. BioScience 48: 941-953.
63.
Greene,
J.D., R.B. Sommerville, L.E. Nystrom,
J.M Darley, and J.D. Cohen. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional
engagement in moral judgment. Science
293: 2105-2108.
64.
Grime,
J.P. 1998. Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: Immediate, filter, and
founder effects. Journal of Ecology 86:
902-910.
65.
Groffman,
P.M., and P.J. Bohlen. 1999. Soil and sediment biodiversity. BioScience 49: 139-148.
66.
Grumbine,
R.E. 1991. Cooperation or conflict? Interagency relationships and the future
of biodiversity for US parks and forests.
Environmental Management 15: 27-37.
67.
Haeuber,
R.A., and W.K. Michener. 1998. Policy implications of recent natural and
managed floods. BioScience 48: 765-772.
68.
Hall,
C.A. 1988. An assessment of several of the historically most influential
theoretical models used in ecology and some of the data provided in their
support. Ecological Modeling 43: 5-31.
69.
Handel,
S.N., Robinson, G.R., and Beattie, A.J.
(1994) Biodiversity resources
for ecological restoration. Restoration
Ecology 2: 230-241.
70.
Hanski,
I., and M. Gyllenberg. 1997. Uniting two general patterns in the
distribution of species. Science 275:
397-400.
71.
Hanski,
I., and O. Ovaskainen. 2002. Extinction debt at extinction
threshold. Conservation Biology 16:
666-673.
72.
Harrison,
S.P. 1994. Metapopulations and conservation. Pages 111-128 in: P.J. Edwards, R.M. May, and N.R. Webb, editors. Large-Scale Ecology and Conservation
Biology. Blackwell Scientific.
73.
Harte,
J., A. Kinzig, and J. Green. 1999. Self-similarity in the distribution and
abundance of species. Science 284:
334-336.
74.
Hasselman,
K., and Nine Others. The challenge of
long-term climate change. Science 302:
1923-1926.
75.
Hastings,
A. 2003. Metapopulation persistence with age-dependent disturbance or
succession. Science 301: 1525-1526.
76.
Hector,
A., and 34 Others. 1999. Plant diversity and productivity experiments
in European grasslands. Science 286:
1123-1129.
77.
Hockings,
M. 2003. Systems for assessing the effectiveness of management in
protected areas. BioScience 53:
823-832.
78.
Hooper,
D.U., and P.M. Vitousek. 1997. The effects of plant composition and
diversity on ecosystem processes.
Science 277: 1302-1305.
79.
Houck,
O. 2003. Tales from a troubled marriage: Science and law in environmental
policy. Science 302: 1926-1929.
80.
Hudson,
W.E. 1991. Landscape Linkages and Biodiversity. Island Press.
81.
Hughes,
J.B., G.C. Daily, and P.R. Ehrlich.
1997. Population diversity: Its
extent and extinction. Science 278:
692-694.
82.
Hughes,
T.P., and Sixteen Others. 2003. Climate change, human impacts, and the
resilience of coral reefs. Science 301:
929-933.
83.
Huston,
M. 1994. Biological diversity, soils, and economics. Science 262: 1676-1680.
84.
Jackson,
J.B.C., and Eighteen Others. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent
collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293: 629-638.
85.
Jenkins,
M. 2003. Prospects for biodiversity.
Science 302: 1175-1177.
86.
Jepson,
P, J.K. Jarvie, K. MacKinnon, and K.A. Monk.
2001. The end for Indonesia's
lowland forests? Science 292: 859-861.
87.
Johnson,
K.H., K. A. Vogt, H.J. Clark, O.J. Schmitz, and D.A. Vogt. 1996.
Biodiversity and the productivity and stability of ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11: 372-377.
88.
Joron,
M., and P.M. Brakefield. 2003. Captivity masks inbreeding effects on male
success in butterflies. Nature 424:
191-194.
89.
Kaiser,
J. 2000. Rift over biodiversity divides ecologists. Science 289: 1282-1283.
90.
Kareiva,
P., and M. Marvier. 2003. Conserving biodiversity coldspots. American Scientist 91: 344-351.
91.
Kareiva,
P., M. Marvier, and M. McClure.
2000. Recovery and management
options for spring/summer Chinook salmon in the Columbia River basin. Science 290: 977-979.
92.
Karl,
T.R., and K.E. Trenbeth. 2003. Modern global climate change. Science 302: 1719-1722
93.
Knapp,
A.K., J.M. Blair, J.M. Briggs, S.L. Collins, D.C. Hartnett, L.C. Johnson, and
E. G. Towne. 1998. The keystone role of bison in North American
tallgrass prairie. BioScience 49:
39-50.
94.
Knopf,
F.L. 1986. Changing landscapes and the cosmopolitanism of eastern Colorado
avifauna. Wildlife. Soc. Bull. 14:
132-142.
95.
Kunin,
W.E. 1998. Extrapolating species abundance across spatial scales. Science 281: 1513-1515.
96.
L.
Guterman. 2000. Have ecologists oversold biodiversity? The Chronicle of Higher Education, Oct. 13,
2000, http://chronicle.com/free/v47/i07/07a02401.htm
97.
Lacy,
R.C. 1987. Loss of genetic diversity from managed populations: Interacting
effects of drift, mutation, selection, and population subdivision. Conservation Biology 1: 143-158.
98.
Laurance,
W.F., T.E. Lovejoy, H.L Vasoncelos, E.M. Bruna, R.K. Didham, P.G. Stouffer, C.
Gascon, R.O. Bierregaard, S.G. Laurance, and E. Sampaio. 2002.
Ecosystem decay of Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year
investigation. Conservation Biology 16:
605-618.
99.
Lawler,
A. 2001. Up for the count? Science
294: 769-770.
100. Lawton, J. H. 1996.
The ECOTRON Facility at Silwood Park: The value of “big bottle”
experiments. Ecology 77: 665-669.
101. Lawton, J.H. 1994.
What do species do in ecosystems?
Oikos 71: 367-374.
102. Lawton, J.H. and V.K. Brown. 1993. Redundancy in
ecosystems. Pages 255-270 in: E-D.
Schulze and H.A. Mooney, editors.
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
103. Levin, P.S., and D.A. Levin. 2001.
The real biodiversity crisis.
American Scientist 90: 6-8.
104. Levine, J.M. 2000.
Species diversity and biological invasions: Relating local process to
community pattern. Science 288:
852-854.
105. Loreau, M., and Eleven Others. 2001.
Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Current knowledge and future
challenges. Science 294: 804-808.
106. Lutz, W., W. Sanderson, and S.
Scherbov. 2001. The end of world population growth. Nature 412: 543-545.
107. Magurran, A.E., and P.A.
Henderson. 2003. Explaining the excess of rare species in
natural species abundance distributions.
Nature 422: 714-716.
108. Malakoff, D. 2001.
A roaring debate over ocean noise.
Science 291: 576-578.
109. Marshall, E., R. Haight, and F.R.
Homans. 1998. Incorporating environmental uncertainty into species management
decisions: Kirtland's warbler habitat management as a case study. Conservation Biology 12: 975-985.
110.
Matson,
P.A., W.J. Parton, A.G. Power, and M.J. Swift.
1997. Agricultural
intensification and ecosystem properties.
Science 277: 504-509.
111.
May,
R.M. 1988. How many species are there on earth? Science 241: 1441-1449.
112.
McGill,
B.J. 2003. A test of the unified neutral theory of biodiversity. Nature 422: 881-885.
113. McMillan, M.A., J.C. Nekola, and
D.W. Larson. 2003. Effects of rock climbing on the land snail
community of the Niagara Escarpment in southern Ontario, Canada. Conservation Biology 17: 616-621.
114. McNaughton, S.J. 1993.
Biodiversity and function of grazing ecosystems. Pages 362-383 in: E-D. Schulze and H.A.
Mooney, editors. Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Function. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
115. McNeely, J.A. 1988. The Economics of Biological Diversity:
Developing and Using Economic
Incentives to Conserve Biological Resources. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
116.
Mooney,
H.A., and J.A. Drake, editors. 1989. Ecology of Biological Invasions of
North America and Hawai'i.
Springer-Verlag, New York, USA.
117. Morgan, M.G., A. Houghton, and J.H.
Gibbons. 2001. Improving science and technology advice for
Congress. Science 293: 1999-2000.
118. Moyle, P.B., and R.A. Leidy. 1992.
Loss of biodiversity in aquatic systems: Evidence from fish faunas. Pages 127-169 in: P.L. Fiedler and S.K.
Jain, editors. Conservation
Biology. Chapman and Hall, New
York.
119. Myers, N. 1995. The world's
forests: Need for a policy appraisal.
Science 268: 823-824.
120. Myers, N. 2003. Biodiversity
hotspots revisited. BioScience 53:
916-917.
121. Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G.
Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca, and J. Kent.
2000. Biodiversity hotspots for
conservation priorities. Nature 403:
853-858.
122. Myers, R.A., and B. Worm. 2003.
Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423: 280-283.
123. Naeem, S., L.J. Thompson, S.P
Lawlor, J.H. Lawton, and R.M. Woodin.
1994. Declining biodiversity can
alter the performance of ecosystems.
Nature 368: 734-737.
124. Nee, S., and R.M. May. 1997.
Extinction and the loss of evolutionary history. Science 278: 689-692
125. Nentwig, W. 1999.
The importance of human ecology at the threshold of the next Millennium:
How can population growth be stopped?
Naturwissenschaften 86: 411-421.
126.