Cities and Patron Deities

Every Greek city placed itself undr patronage of a god or goddess: Poseidon at Corinth, Hera at Argos, Zeus at Kos, Athene at Sparta, Tegea and Athens.

Foundation of a City

Before site chosen, prospective founding polis would consult an oracle. Sacred hearth of new city lit with fire taken from hearth of city providing settlers. Tracing out of plan of new town preceded by sacrifices and prayers, and sacrifices performed after construction of principal buldins, usually oriented around an agora and temple of patron deity.

Common Hearth

The hestia of a city was located at its center, just as hearth formed heart of an oikos. Seat of the cult of the eponymous goddess Hestia, civic hearth often sited in preputaneion, or office of the city's magistrates. Flame that burned perpetually on altar symbolized vitality of civic unit. Periodically it was rekindled from altars that Greeks considered most pure, those of Apollo at Delphi or Delos. At civic hearth official foreign visitors, e.g. ambassadors, come to treat with Council or Assembly, were received as gusts and provided with a meal at public expense. City similarly entertained those of its own citizens upon whom they had conferred supreme honor of sitesis (Socrates suggested this honor from his judges in 399)

Assembly and Law Courts

Meetings of assembly opened by a sacrifice (At Athens, piglet, whose blood was spattered over presiding committee of Council). Sacred affairs were dealt with by Assembly and taken first, in presence of citizens. These included the consultation of oracles, sending of sacred delegations to great festivals and passing or revision of sacred laws. City's law courts had jurisdiction over disputes involving sacred property: at Athens, e.g., Areopagos council heard cases concerning damage to sacred olive trees of Athene (e.g. Lysias VII), while impiety trials such as those of Alkibiades and Socrates held in popular jury courts (diasteria).

Officials.

Before elected or allotted officials could take up a post at Athens, had to undergo a preliminary scrutiny (dokimasia) of credentials. Questions asked included matters of religious cult: did they observe worship of familial Apollo Patroos and domestic Zeus Herkeios? Once in office regularly swore oaths, as ordinary citizens did too when they entered on ephebeia (two years of national service) or acted as witness in a lawsuit. Procedure of oath taking involved swearing on the victims of a sacrifice while intoning a formula that called on gods to be witnesses and invoked divine punishment on perjurors. The King Arkhon at Athens had charge of the Eleusinian mysteries and Lenaia and Panathenaia festivals, directed civic sacrifices, and pronounced religious interdict on those condemned for impiety. Athenian Polemarkh conducted sacrifices to Artemis and supervised funerary games. On leaving office officials made dedication to gods.

Sacred Treasuries

Status of Athenian public treasure offers illustration of interpenetration of religious and civic life. Strictly speaking state of Athens had no public finances. Treasure was housed after 447 in Parthenon under protection and technically also in ownership of Athene. But city reserved right to utilize resources contained in sanctuaries for any sort of purpose, e.g. finance a war. In fifth century, from 454 onwards, one-sixtieth of money tribute paid by Athens' allies was devoted to Athene. This tribute surplus and other funds used to finance public building program on Akropolis, which included construction of Parthenon itself.

Liturgies

Compulsory financial obligation imposed on richest Athenians and resident foreigners. Liturgies were of two main kinds, military (for citizens only ) and cultic. A man liable for liturgy of trierarkhia was obliged to equip and, officially, captain a warship for a year. Festival liturgies involved financing some aspect of great civic festivals, e.g., a chorus in dramatic competitions or a banquet at the Panathenaia. There were over one hundred such liturgies to be performed each year.

Oracles and other Portents

Consultation of oracles such as Apollo at Delphi before city took any important decision. More humble level, Greek polis always appealing to diviners (manteis) and oracle mongers (khresmologoi) for a preview of the future or an interpretation of a sacred law, or reminder of traditional custom. Before every military campaign and engagement diviners charged with inspecting entrails of sacrificial victims for any clue to outcome of fighting. In a famous episode in Persian Wars, just before Plataia in 479, Pausanias and pious Spartans stoically stood their ground under a hail of Persian arrows, refusing to advance to fray until sacrificial omens were propitious (Herododtus 9.61). Almost a hundred years later, advance of another Spartan commander held up for no less than four days because sacrifices were considered unfavorable (Xen. Hellanica iii.1.17)

Religion and Patriotism<

Cities competed with each other in interstate sanctuaries by means of rival buildings and offerings -- Treasuries along Sacred Way at Delphi e.g.; and in international Games through the medium of the victors --e.g. any Athenian who won a crown at one of Panhellenic Games received in perpetuity honor of sitesis in the prytaneion, a right inherited by his descendants. Cities also attempted to promote certain local cults to panhellenic status. Athens did this successfully with Eleusinian Mysteries, but less so with buildings and cults on Akropolis and least of all with Panathenaia.

Athenian agora was seat of numerous civic cults, a sanctuary precinct with its sacred enclosures, altars, tombs of heroes and festivals. But was also symbol of city of Athens' political activity; along its margins were eventually constructed all buildings essential to conduct of political life.

History of Akropolis bears more particularly on question of religion and partisan politics. It was ancient site of both habitation and cult, since at least Myceneaen epoch. But ordered arrangement of sanctuaries dates initially from dictatorship of tyrants Peisistratos and his son Hippias (528-10). Same rulers added musical and athletic competitions to old Panathenaic festival, making it famous throughout Hellenic world. Glory of Athens from middle of sixth century onwards would seem to be linked to program of religious politics.

Akropolis was destroyed by Persians in 480 and again in 479. Buildings of archaic period not restored and what survives are ruins of classical age, Parthenon, Propylaia, temple of Athene Nike and Erekhtheion, all conceived and constructed during second half of fifth century.

How did Athenians selves see new buildings? Iconographic program in sculptures. From pediment to metopes and frieze, themes peculiar to mythical and real history of Athenians interlaced with traditional themes from myth common to all Greeks. Here in the Parthenon sculptures we can see better than in any other city the imprint of a civic ideology, that same ideology which was in play in tragedies and comedies staged during Dionysia.

"What caused greatest pleasure to the Athenians contributed most to adorning their city, what most forcibly struck the imagination of foreign visitors, what alone proves that the ancient reports of Athenian power and prosperity are not lies, are the monuments that Perikles had constructed." (Plutarch, Perikles, 12.1) Craftsmen strove to outdo each other by technical perfection of their work.

War and Treaties

Interstate treaties guaranteed by oaths sworn by respective parties. These were ancient, religious equivalent of our wholly secular signatures. Since oath had a sacral value, accompanied either by a libation or a sacrifice. It had binding force for the oath taker, inasmuch as gods were guarantors of its observance (though this did not prevent frequent breaches)

Military campaigns occasion for numerous rituals. Portents, oracles, sacrifices, paeans sung. Victory required thanksgiving rituals, including erection of battlefield trophy in honor of Zeus Tropaios or of Nike. Originally striking of captured arms and armor to trunk of tree but came to have monumental form, as e.g. in still largely extant stone memorial marking victory of Thebans under Epameinondas over supposedly invincible Spartans at Leuktra in Boiotia in 371. Back home not unusual to consecrate to a god in a sanctuary some part of captured booty in form of a statue or a building commemorating victory. So Treasury of Athenians along Sacred Way at Delphi memorialized victory over Persians at Marathon in 490.

Sacred Calendars

Religious festivals gave a rhythm to political and every day life. Athenian Calendar dated from time of Solon (early sixth century). Was an integrated part of his law-giving. Almost two centuries later, at end of fifth century, city commissioned a certain Nikomakhos (who was exceptionally granted citizenship despite being allegedly son of a public slave) to reduce to order the calendar of state sacrifices. Task was completed and text inscribed on a wall within the Stoa Basileois (office of King Arkhon) in the Agora. Only fragments of this great calendar survive, but by combining these with other sources can reconstruct calendar. Athenians like Jews, worked with a luni-solar calendar, attempting by various means, especially intercalation to reconcile disparate solar and lunar years and keep calendar in accordance with seasons. Twelve lunar months named after various divinities or festivals, differently in different cities. Athenian year deemed to begin in mid summer, dead season of the agricultural year, and the months of their year do not coincide precisely with ours: Hekatombaion, the first, began in roughly mid July and ended roughly in mid August, etc. In Athenian calendar certain festivals celebrated every month, others only annually. If monthly and annual festivals combined, a total of 120 days each year counted as festival days for Athenians, more than for any other Greek polis.

Principal moments of any festival were the procession, sacrifice with ensuing festal banquet, and competitions or other ancillary features

Procession often occupied first day of a festival. Wended way through city from a fixed starting point to sanctuary of the divine honor and, following identical route every time. Organization laid down in advance, components differing from festival to festival.

Every four years Great Panathenaia, on Hektombian 28, Panathenaic procession left form Dipylon Gate, crossed the Kerameikos (Potters' Quarter) and the Agora, and entered Akropolis through Propylaia. Then proceeded length of Parthenon and finished up at east end of temple in front of great altar of Zeus and Athene. Thus it passed through most vital points of city, Agora and Apropolis. Certain sequences represented in Parthenon frieze. Procession involved several sections of population: young warriors (hoplites and cavalrymen), old men, daughters of citizens acting as Ergastinai (weavers of peplos, robe worn by Athene's olive wood cult statue) and Kanephori (basket bearers).

Resident aliens allotted a role, they and their sons carrying trays of offerings (skaphephori), their wives jars of water (Hydriaphorai) and their daughters parasols. Perhaps even some of the unfree population were allowed to process. Foreigners were included, notably in fifth century representatives of allied states in Athens' anti-Persian naval alliance, since they were treated as honorary colonists of Athens. Non human participants, cows destined for sacrifice.

Formal object of procession to convey Athene's new peplos, saffron dyed and embroidered with scenes of Athene's exploits in combat with Giants, to the King Arkhon for him to place on Athene's xoanon in (eventually) the Erektheion. But it also allowed city to display spectacularly both hierarchy of its political organization and the unity in diversity of population as a whole. This spectacle was aimed as much at rest of Athenian people as at allied representatives present and Greek world at large.

Processions of City Dionysia were different. On first day of festival, Elaphebolion 10, statue of Dionysos Elleuthereus was removed from its sanctuary at foot of Akropolis near the theatre and transported in procession to a temple near Academy gymnasion (exercise ground) on way to Eleutherai on borders of Attica and Boiotia). On next day it was returned to original sanctuary, whence it was taken in a new procession to the orchestra in middle of theatre. Route followed uncertain, but it seems to have been a procession of conventional type, involving civic officials, representatives of different categories of city's residents, impressarios for plays (khoregoi) dressed in their finery, bearer of offerings or of model phalli, and numerous sacrificial bulls. There followed great sacrifice and banquet.

Other procession of central day of festival was the komos (revel, rout), and this with its much less formal atmosphere lived up to its name. It took place at end of day, probably immediately after the banquet. Men carrying lighted torches and accompanied by players of auloi ran through streets singing and dancing, enacting on a city-wide scale the revel that followed a private drinking party (symposion)

Functions of these procession rituals were many. One was publicity: reason for festival was broadcast and an invitation to join in was extended to all along the way. Other functions included renewal, a reactivation of benefactions and virtues of the god whose statue was sometimes carried, and a reaffirmation of sanctity of different sites where crowd halted, especially altars. Symbolic reappropriation of city's space by the community.

Sacrifice<

Powerful ritual moment present in every festival of Athenian calendar. Number of sacrificial victims, known to us through accounts of Treasurers of Athene, gives a material measure of importance of post-sacrificial feasts. Sacrifice of a hecatomb (one hundred beasts) was frequent and figure could rise to over two hundred victims for a single festival. City bore cost either directly or as attested for Panathenaia and Dioysia, by imposing the liturgy of hestiasis on rich men. At Panathenai distribution of sacrificial meat made in the Kerameikos among those demesmen who had participated in procession and sacrifice.

With apparent exception of Maimakterion, not a month passed without a massive slaughtering of beasts. A city at festival time was thus also a city that reeked with smells of spilt animal blood and roasted or boiled meat, and resounded with noise of a community feasting, drinking wine and making merry.

Agones

Not every festival had a competition, but every competition was part of a religious festival.

Panathenaia had long been celebrated with in 566 an attempt was made by Athens to produce a rival to festivals of the Olympian, Pythian and Nemean, and Isthmian Games, which had been organized into an interlocking circuit (periodos) in previous decade. Attempt did not fully succeed. Panathenaic Games remained more Athenian than Greek, though the competitions, held every fourth year during Great Panathenaia, were opened to all Greeks. They included a contest for rhapsodes (reciters of epic verse), musical competitions, and athletic events.

Competitors in latter were males only and divided into three groups: children (up to eighteen), young men, older men. Apart from glory, competed also for material prizes, the Athenian Panatheaic amphoras filled with oil specially pressed from Athene's sacred olives. On one side of a Panathenaic amphora was depicted, always in the black figure silhouette technique, Athene brandishing a sword, and alongside her an inscription: "Of the games from Athens"

On reverse was a scene of the particular event (chariot race, etc) for which amphora was the prize or part of the prize: winner of boys' running race, e.g., received fifty amphoras. At the Olympics all events were for individual only, but the Panatheaic Games also included team competitions: dance in armor (Pyrrihikhe, for which prize was an ox and 100 drachmas, a torch race, and even rowing races held off Cape Sounion.

Festival and Theatre

Great Dyonisia held in Elaphebolion (March-April) included three or more days of dramatic competitions. These attracted wider public than just Athenian population. Statue of Dionysus stood in orchestra, circular space (perhaps modelled on a threshing floor) where chorus performed; theatre was set within his sacred precinct and plays were integrated within rituals of Dionysiac cult.

Was also a competition of dythyramb. Over 1,000 Athenian citizens altogether took part as performers every year. Organization of festival was in charge of Eponymous Arkhon, not the King, since this was a relative newcomer to festival calendar. He selected poet playwrites whose plays were to be performed, who saw to allocation of protagonists and who appointed the koregoi to fulfil the liturgy, and he presided over judging of competitions.

Theater program began at daybreak. Spectators were in festival garb, wearing wreaths on their heads; distinguished citizens who had been awarded front seat precedence (proedria) sat togehter with members of Council of 500, the ephebes and specially selected judges. A ritual purification was carried out with blood of a sacrificed piglet, and order of competitors drawn up by lot. Plays went on one after the other until dusk. At end of competition three prizes: best playwright, best khoregos and best actor. Following day an Assembly meeting was held in the theatre to check officials' accounts, vote honors and record the results.

Surplus wealth that formerly had been reserved for destruction in aristocratic burials was now being diverted to greater glory of gods, especially those of Olympia, Delphi, Dodona and Delos, all sites destined to experience a Panhellenic florescence. Birth of interstate sanctuary in eighth century provided for centuries to come a focal assembly point around which Greek identity could be affirmed through common religious cult. In terms of spatial layout these sanctuaries initially were vast architectural complexes, located outside the immediate area of a town. Around the temples and altars arose various sorts of buildings such as "treasuries" set up by states or grateful individuals to receive offerings, or banqueting halls or dormitories for overnight visitors. A peribolos wall delimited sacred area. Beyond that extended spaces set aside for competitions.

Perhaps as many as 40,000 would gather in classical stadium at Olympia, not to mention all fringe hangers on and fellow travellers. Following Roman conquest of Greece, non Greeks allowed to participate as competitors.

Gatherings facilitated and sometimes made possible by declaration of a sacred truce. These truces were announced by sacred ambassadors (theoroi from Delphi, spondophoroi from Olympia and Athens) who travelled Greek world from city to city enjoying lavish hospitality and usually inviolability. Truces covered period required for participants to congregate and return safely home again after games.

Panegykuris was first and foremost a religious assembly, placed under sign of god or gods who controlled the sanctuary. Festival period was inaugurated by solemn procession and one or more sacrifices to bind participants together in communion. It was punctuated and closed by further rituals and sacrifices. Smooth functioning assured by boards of priests assisted by staff specially recruited for occasion. Often priests enjoyed a hereditary, aristocratic privilege. Delphi was unique in that its management was in hands of a permanent religious league of states in central Greece, called the Amphiktiony because states were located "around the sanctuary." Delphic Amphiktiony for centuries ensured continuous celebration of Pythian Games every four years.

Whole city, not just aristocrats, which identified itself with the victory of one of its citizens at games. From beginning of sixth century cities began to build special exercise grounds to encourage local athletes, and honors given victors testify to value placed on competition and competitiveness (agonia) by Greek civic ideology.

Olympics celebrated every four years at height of summer (July-August)probably at second full moon after summer solstice; Pythian games in third year of an Olympiad towards end of summer (August-September), the Isthmian and Nemean Games every two years, alternating with Olympics and Pythians , in spring.

Same competitors might compete successively at all games in a cycle and shoud they have been victorious gam glorious title of "Circuit Victor" (periodonikes). One such was Theogones of Thasos, a prodigious wrestler of early fifth century whose exploits earned him not only numerous honorific statues but also posthumous promotion to status of hero healer and recipient of religious worship.

Kleos promised victors was that celebrated by Pindar. In Pythian Odes first seven commemorate victors in four horse chariot race, the blue ribbon event in athletic competitions (though victors did not actually drive their chariots themselves). Most successful of victors hymned by Pindar was Hieron, tyrant of Sycacuse, whose chariot won at Pythian games of 470 after two previous chariot victories there and a third victory won by his stallion Pherenikos (Victory brings). Pindar's First Pythian thus commemorates the tyrant at the apogee of his fame, but it is also an eloquent moral and religious tract, setting before the honor and a model of comportment both for himself as sovereign ruler and for new city of Aitna that he had just founded in Sicily. . In other five Pythians victors of more modest social background are celebrated. Eleventh Pythian, e.g., is dedicated to young fellow Theban called Thrasydaios who had won boys' stade race (some 200 meters) in 474 (454?).

Olympia

Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia situated in a fertile plain in northwest Peloponnese, within territory usually controlled in historical times by Elis. Plain is traversed by river Alpheios, longest perennial river of Peloponnese, and dotted with hills. At foot of one of these sacred to Khronos that sanctuary lay. Site occupied since middle of second millennium but sanctuary dates from tenth century. Hieron was known as Altis after a sacred wood. Harbored worship of several gods and goddesses, chiefly Hera and Zeus.

Oinomaos and Herakles<

Games first organized or reorganized in 776 and held every four years thereafter. Date used much later by Greeks as an era to measure time and situate events (Event occurred in such and such year of such and such Olympiad (e.g. Sparta was barred from Games by Elis in first year of the 90th Olympiad, what we call 420).

Games continued without interruption every four years until 394 C.E. when shut down for good by edict of Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I.

Festival lasted six days. First devoted to variety of religious rituals including sacrifices at great ash altar of Zeus (which was composed of a mixture of sacrifical debris and water from the Alpheios and had reached a height of seven meters by time Pausanias viewed it in late second century C.E. and other altars in the Altis. Athletes swore an oath to conduct themselves honorably and Hellanodika (judges) declared games officially open.

Following days given over to thirteen events. Ten were for adults (all competitors male. Women, apart form priestess of Hera, were not even permitted to watch); stadion (192.27 meters =one stade), diaulos (two stades), dokikhos (long distance, 24 stades), hoplitodromos (race in heavy armor), pentathlon (discus, standing jump, javelin, stadion, wrestling), wrestling, boxing, chariot race, horse race, and pankration (boxing, wrestling and judo combined --no holds barred).

Boys competed in junior stadion, wrestling and boxing. Stadion was senior race in two senses, being both oldest and most prestigious of unaided, individual events: winner received title Olympionikes, and whole Olympiand known thenceforth as "so and so’s Olympiad. Judgment of the Hellanodikai considered sacred and final.

On sixth and last day victors received their prize, a crown of wild olive leaves picked from trees growing in the Altis and decorated with ribbons. Victors and priests processed before altars, sang and sacrificed. Great banquet then served to them in the prutaneion.

That was official end, but further honors and ceremonies. At Olympia itself might be allowed to erect a statue and commissions from this source enabled sculptors to make great strides in study and representation of human body. They dedicated their olive wreath crown in Temple of Zeus and sacrificed to Hera (whose temple had originally been shared by Zeus before Eleians erected for him in 460s and 50s a magnificent structure that later housed Pheidias' wondrous chryselephantine cult statue). Then, home city might organize a triumphal return, even going to lengths of knocking down a stretch of city wall to admit victor, clad in purple and riding a chariot pulled by four white horses, and granting right to erect a statue in city's agora or in a sanctuary. At Athens, reward was sitesis, one of greatest honors it had to bestow.

Since victory was regarded as gift of the gods, victor considered a divine favorite and endowed with numinous qualities. Greek cities competed fiercely with each other through medium of prize athletes (Tomba!) Competition was most highly esteemed method of measuring oneself against others, because gods sanctioned it.

Delph

Home of quadrennial Pythian Games differed from Olympia, first, in that alongside athletics it staged a musical competition of great antiquity and enormous prestige. Second, whereas Olympia mostly dozed between Olympics, Apollo's sanctuary at Delphi was constant hive of activity thanks to its oracle.

Herodotus alone cited eighteen oracular sanctuaries and forty three other oracular responses in addition to fifty three he recorded from Delphi, but Delphi was the premier oracular shrine of Hellenic world.

Cleromancy, divination by lots (kleroi), small pebbles or bits of wood were shaken in a vase or bowel and drawn out.

Semeia, interpretation of signs; celestial phenomena (thunder, eg.), direction or nature of flight of birds (equivalent Roman procedure gives us word Auspices), or sacrificial entrails (especially liver). This required application of specialist knowledge, acquired through professional practice.

Oral divination (most prestigious) interpretation of divinely inspired utterance. Written collections of such oracles kept by Khresmologi who claimed to be able to interpret them and on strength of that claim were sometimes employed by cities.

Above all were oracles emanating from certain specialist sanctuaries. These shrines had permanent staff of priests and priestesses, who, using methods peculiar to own sanctuary, acted as interpreters of divine voice. Most illustrious included those of Amphiaraos at Oropos, of Trophonios at Lebadeia in Beoitioa, of Apollo at Didyma near Mietos, and of Zeus at Dodona. But greatest was Delphi.

Temple in classical period flanked by 27 treasuries, token of esteem in which Greek cities held this shrine. Origins of that esteem appear to lie in crucial role played by Apollo as arkhegetes (founder leader) in movement of overseas colonization to Sicily and elsewhere from later eighth century onwards. But oracle's reputation extended beyond Greek world, as offerings of several non Greek kings testify. Tradition preserved several thousands of Delphic oracles. Many are product of industry of oracle fabrication, which itself a tribute to sanctuary's prestige. Others are attested by inscriptions or cited by orators, and these only ones whose authenticity seems guaranteed.

Herodotus vii, 140-3

Originally Pythia, who had to be an elderly, virgin woman from local area, had prophesied just once a year on seventh of the Delphian month Bysios, Apollo's birtday. But in classical period solemn consultations were available once a month, also on the seventh day. Has been suggested that there might have been up to three Pythias, two in post and one substitute in reserve, who prophesied in rotation to meet the huge demand. After procedural preliminaries (ablutions, payment for right to consult, sacrifice) completed under supervision of priests, consultant entered temple and participated in a second sacrifice before being allowed into the aduton where priestess sat.

Besides Pythias' tripod the aduton contained the omphalos or navel stone symbolizing its central position in the universe (Delphi itself meant wombs) and it was here that Apollo himself spoke to mankind.

Epidauros and Asklepios

Epidauros in northeast Peloponnese lay inland within a valley flanked by mountains. Here were two cult sites. First, on slopes of Kynoriton, had been occupied since Mycenaean times and in seventh century received cult of Apollo Maleatas. This continued in use after second cult, that of Asklepios, established at edge of plain towards end of sixth century.

Myth history of Asklepios originally set in Thessaly but priests of Epidauros peddled own version and established connection. It was from Epidauros that cult spread to other cities in the fifth century, to Athens in 420/19 (under sponsorship of Sophocles).

Greeks consulted Asklepios to learn how to cure illnesses but sanctuary also site of quadrennial games, the Asklepeieia, comparable to other Panhellenic festivals. Hence presence of theatre, stadium, gymnasion and dormitories.

Rituals began with purifications, sacrifices and ablutions in holy water from sacred fountains. Only those without stain and blemish, physical or moral, might enter shrine. Abstinence for sexual intercourse was an immediate and absolute requirement and, as on Delos, it was forbidden to die or give birth within the sanctuary. Pilgrim betook herself to incubation place which was an abaton or no go area for the impure. The divinatory procedure of incubation involved god's appearing to sleeping consultant in a dream and indicating appropriate remedy.

Among remains of many buildings is an enigma, a tholos (circular structure) with a basement in form of a labyrinth. Archaeologists have interpreted this variously as pit where sacred snakes lived, the tomb of a hero, or even as representation of a mole's burrow, a proper site for cult of the mole god...Sanctuary's fame and hordes of pilgrims gradually led to its transformation from an oracular shrine for practice of incubation into a huge complex of cures and baths where priests of Asklepios could profit from practice of their art. In post classical and Hellenistic era shrines of Asklepios multiplied and some, like the Asklepieion at Kos, attaining comparable celebrity to that of Epidauros

Herondas, Mime 1v. 1-9