Ancient Roman Religion
IndoEuropean elements enhanced by addition of Mediterranean and
Italic features and Etruscan influence.
IndoEuropean Elements
Cannot present complete pciture of IndoEuropean inheritance.
But can say that prior to sixth century there was a Roman religion
with a mythology, theology and organization, much of which became
survivals no one understood.
Domestic religion more alive in Rome than Greece. Roman family
was always patriarchal and father, direct descendant of family's
ancestor, was all powrful head. He represented family in the city
and presided over worship. Each hearth was a religious unit, whose
soul was the fire which was not to go out.
Pater familiaris personally responsible fo fire; he offered
sacrifices to it, hailed it, prayed and invoked it. Living fire was
no other than goddess Vesta. Other deities protected house.
Familiar Lares guarded the good state of family and Penates
watched over its stores. Each family member had his genius (for
men) or juno (for women), divinities symbolizing vital force of
individual. Genius of pater familias was whole force of ancestral
gods: represented by a snake, it was object of special worship and
received offerings of milk and cakes.
Cult of dead and beliefs about after life, although
influenced by Mediterranean ideas, were essentially Indo European
in origin. Funerary practices were regulated and from ancient
times, world of dead was carefully kept apart from that of the
living. Law of Twelve Tables, which prohibited any corpse from
being buried or burnt within the city, was merely continuing
prohibitions which stretch back at least to ninth century.
Like Homeric Greeks, Romans believed in survival in tomb,
maintained by sacrifices and libations, and governed by observance
of rites, neglect of which brought dangers. Dead (unburied, or
buried without proper ritual) became malevolent being who comes
back to torment living to recall them to duty.
Manes, originally souls of dead ancestors, became deities,
tutelary or harmful according as they were or were not satisfied.
Persecution especially feared when, under form of Larvae or
Lemures, they came back to claim rights and afflict the living. So
were many feasts of ead, almost all domestic, and apotropaic
practices carried out. Each year on 9th, llth, and 13th of May,
Lemuria took place. In house pater familias rose in middle of
night and ran barefoot through silent rooms snapping his fingers
to ward off spirits of dead; he washed his hands three times in
running watter, and took black beans in his mouth, which he spat
over his shoulder, crying nine times: "I spit out these beans and
with them I redeem me and mine." Purifying self again with water,
he struck his hands on a bronze vessel saying nine times: "Manes of
my fathers, begone!" Only when Manes had been so exorcised could he
return to bed.
Ancient Roman calendar presupposes a series of successive stages in
evolution of old Italian religion down to end of Republic. Names of
gods inscribed in pre-Julian calendar, and their functions, reflect
these earlier stages. Earliest of these deities were chielfly
following (Deities with flamens or other official cultic
representatives, marked with askterisks:
Anna Perenna Lemures (?)
*Carmenta *Mars
Carna Mater Matuta
*Ceres Neptunus and Salacia
Consus Ops
Di penates *Pales, Palatua
Diva Angerona *Pomona
*Falacer *Portunus
*Faunus, Fauna *Quirinus
*Flora Robigus (?)
Fons (?) Saturnus
*Furrina Silvanus
Genius and Juno Tellus
*Janus Terminus (?)
*Jupiter Veiovis
Juturna *Vesta
Larenta *Volcanus and Maia
Lares (?) *Volturnus
Of these earlier dieites, most ancient probably Janus, Jupiter,
Mars, Quirinus, Vesta, di penates and lares, Genius, Tellus,Consus,
Ops, and Sataurnus. Though some deities older still, no trace but
names (e.g., Falacer) and though some of them wee shared with
others in ancient Italy, still impossible to write "prehistory" of
Roman religion pror to 753 BCE. Later arrivals: Diana, Minerva,
Fortuna, Cator and Pollux, Hercules, Feronia, Vortumnus and Venus;
from Magna Graceia, Apollo, Ceres, Liber and Libera, Mercury,
Aesculapius and Salus, Dis pater and Proserpina, Mens, SOl and
Luna; and form Phyrgia, Great Mother of Gods. Oriental mystery
deities came later still. After Julius Caesar revised claendar
were no fundamental changes but only additions: notable events in
history of Caesarian family added, but they were more like natioanl
holidays added to an ecclesiastical calendar. Other later additions
chiefly games.
Traditional divisions
1) most primitive, men in forest where spirits lurked, where charms
and spells potent, where very rock and tree and hill and stream
sacred (feelings that never really leftf ancient Italians
2) period of settled agricultural life, where ritual centered in
the farm, with its lar or lares, and included not onlly farmhouse
and hearth sacred to Vesta, its storechamber and guardian penates,
its doorway sacred to Janus, but also fields with their boundary
mark or Terminus, their annual lustration or blessing at
Ambarvaila, religious observances connected with seedtime and
harvest, at Saturnalia, Vinalia, Consualia, and Opiconsivia
3) settled urban life and political constitution of Roman people,
with memorials of dead at the Parentalia and worship of common
lares or guardians of whole community (Lares Praestites, May 1),
organized religoin of state with Vestals and Flamens and Pontifex
Maximus in chrge of rites, great Latin festival (end of April)
celebrating on the Alban Mount the consolidation of Latin tribes
under hegemony of Rome. As in Hebrew religion and some others,
festivals in calendar reflect nationn's histoy. Oldest rites may
have been prediestic, impersonal and subordinate to rite which was
an opus operatum.
4) period of Etruscan kings, when real temples built and statues of
gods make appearance, new gods arrive and Greek rites introduced.
Fear of dead complex
Cremation: set spirits free; inhumation, preserves ties joining
body and soul and dead remain present in tomb, a source of ffear
for living. Both rites practiced in Italy. Flowers put on graves
now last vestiges of idea of diminished existence in tomb.
Organization
Flamines cp. Indian Brahmans, especially three greater flamens,
whose modest role seems to contradict impications of their
attributes. They were priests of Jpiter, Mars and Quirinus (gods of
the three Indo European classes, Jupiter being god of political and
religious sovereignty, Mars, that of War, and Quirinus that of
production.
Flamen of Jupiter subject to host of tabus: he could not
receive anyone on his couch; he could not mount a horse, or cut
his hair or shave with iroon; he might not eat wheaten flour or
leavened bread, might not look on a corpse, etc.
Mars forught for defence of community and among nomadic Indo
Europeans was god who protected lands used for hunting and pasture,
and became in agricultural Italy protector of men's estates.
Quirnus, minor titiularity deity who was idenitfiied with Romulus
and became, by end of Republic, protector of harvest.
Vesta, spirit of domestic hearth and of city. Presided over
closing, the end, extrema of every act and event.Only female member
of primitive council of gods, she nourished but did not bring into
being. Holiest of gods. WOrship was kept upt by a college of six
Vestals, who tended sacraed flame and were subject to restrictions
which attest to antiquity of origins. Particuilarly, bound to
remain virgin for the thirty years of their priesthood. If vow was
broken, were put to deth by being buried alive. Were under
direction of pontifex maximus, fifth personage of priestly
hierarchy, after the rex sacroroum and three great flamens.
Rex sacrorum presided over worship of Janus. Just as Vest was
goddess of hearth and of completion, Janus was god of door and of
beginnings.
The Numina
Primitive Roman projected into every element of nature what he
perceived as principle of life: every act was prdocut of
intervetnion of a numen
Numen: attested later in sense of "will, active power of gods"
Until recenlty thought of as a "center of power" analogous to mana
of Melanesia, an impersonal power bound individually to each object
or act, holy because mysterious.
Today, one tenedncy to think of numa as resulting
fromfragmenttion of greter and laragaer divinities. Noted that
numina are named by adjectives which are either mascuine or
feminine but neer neuter, or by nouns with agent suffixes, which
suggests may have been thought of as persons andnot abstractions.
Problem
Jupiter: Capitolinus, Latiaris, Luceitus, Elicius, Fulgur,
Tonans, Feretrius, Lapis, Propugnator, Victor, etc.
Some became more specialized: Capitolinus, Tonans, and others
annexing ancient numina left over form more naturalistic religion
(Feretrius,Lapis, etc.)?
Ancient Roman enmeshed in a net of powers. Scarcely born when
Cunina watched over his cradle (cunae), Rumina urged him to take
the breast (ruma), Statulins helped him stand upright (Stare). If
he worked fields Vervactor watached over his first efforts,
Redarator over what followed, Insitor over his sowing. Examples
multiplied.
Many numina were connectaed with a nature or fetish worship.
Stones, trees, etc were holy because they held something of
divinity; objects such as a lance or shield gave material form to
pwoer of a god. Above all, certain animals thought to possess
spiritual power in a higher degree, and became objects of totmistic
worship some traces of which remained. Name of the Italians was
that of a tribe which worshipped a bull calf (vitulus; picus,
woodpecker gave his name to Piceni; hirpu (Sabine for wolf) was
ancestor of Hirpini; Romans themselves were sons of the she wolf,
but also sons of Mars, whose animal form was that of a wolf.
So all actions dominated by "religion" religio est mihi
Religio: totality of bonds attaching human action to realm of gods
Later pontifices opposed to religio (observance of traditional
rites), superstitio (public adherence to innovations of foreign
origin)
Calendar
Probably in Etruria synthesis of Babylonian system (divided year
according to sun's course) and Indo European (lunaar calendar0
Division of days for specifically religious purposes into Fasti and
Nefasti
Calendar only includes fixed festivals (feriae stativae), not
movable ones (feriae conceptivae). Imagine what we could obtain if
we attempted to describe Catholicism simply on basis of liturgical
calendar. But we can count no less than forty five festivals
consecrataed to thirty-six gods
To Jupiter were dedicated the Ides (day of the full moon) when was
no lack of light in heavens. Thus was god of luminous heaven, of
all celestial light (stars, lightning, etc.) GOd of high places As
Fulgur, was none other than Summanus, god of nocturnal
thunderstorms. To Jupiter Liber were dedicated Liberalia, intended
to procure fertility of fields. Certain feasts connected with
viticlture such as Vinaia rustica of August 19th and Meditrinalia
of October 11th and Vinalia priora of April 23rd.
Politically Jupiter had two feasts: Regifugium of Feburary 24th and
Pplifugium of July 5th. During first, the rex sacrorum fled
immediately after the sacrifice; in second, it was people who took
flight. Jupter as Propugnator assisted attacks; as Stator, arrested
flight; as Victor, gave victory.
Almost alone, Jupiter had a moral aspeact. He knew hearts of men
and protected their trust (fides). Under name of Dius Fidiuis, was
guardian of oaths to which Romans attached such importance that
they made them basis of political life. He watached over those
indissoluble marriages which were consecrated by rite of
confarreatio; guarnateed treaties and punished purjuros. Under
title of Feretrius was patron of college of Fetiales, whose priests
goverend relations between Romans and foreigners according to the
ius divinum. Deified abstraction, Fides, no doubt an emanation from
Jupier; her worship was cared for by three senior falmines.
Mars had more fixed festivals than Jupiter and his priest was
second of three senior flamines. He gave name to month which in
primitive calendar opened the year. Was father of Roman people;
cult attested among all peoples of central Italy. He possessed two
most ancient colleges, the Salii and Fratres Arvales. Doubtless
heir of Indo Eurpean god of battle, patron of second class in
society.
FIrst was god of war. He was symbolized by spears andmajority of
fests connected with war: at the Equiria of February 27th and March
14th, horses intended to be used in war were offered to him; at the
Qunquatrus of March 19th and the Tubilustrum of 23rd arms and
trumpets dedicated to him. During March the Salii ran through the
city brandishing the sacred shields and performing warlike dances.
In October, at end of season for military campaigning, , sacrifice
of equus october on 15th and the Armilustrum, or purifiction of
arms, on 23rd.
If Salii warlike in character, Fratres Arvales were agricultural.
An ancient prayer beseeches Mars to "give increrase to the fruits,
the corn, the vines, and the plantations, and birng them to a
prosperous issue; keep also in safety the shepherds and their
flocks and give good health nd vigor to me, my hosue, and
household." (Cato, de Re Rustica, 141)
The Ambarvalia, celebrated to producre gods' protection for fields
were dedicated to Mars.
Janus gave name to first month of solar year and Kalends, first day
of the month, was sacred to him, while his priest, rex sacarorum,
held highest place in priestly hierarchy. Was special protector of
king and first religious act of Numa was to build a temple to him.
Laber became above all god of door and passage way and with idea of
passage went tht of purification. So Horatius expiated murder of
his sister by passing under the tigillum, a wooden beam sacred to
Janus; so the army was purified on its return from a campaign by
passing beneatah the Janus genimus. THis building, believed
constructed by Numa, remained open in time of war and was closed in
time of peace. According to tradition, was only closed once
between time of Numa nd peace after Actium (31 BCE)
Quirinus shrank in stature. Sabaines had god, Vofiouns, and since
Sabinelnauge had lost sound qu at beginning wordsd, odd if QUirinus
came from them. Quirinus became above all a divinity protecting
the corn: A the Robigalia on April 25th, his flamen asked Robiog to
keep away form the harvest; at Consualia on August 21st, he offered
a sacrifice with the Vestals for preservation of garned grain.
Lastly, Quirinus had civic aspect, for Romans took from same root
as that of his name their title Quirites, "citizens" as opposed to
"milites" soldiers. Supports idea that Quirins was god of
producing classes, originally too poor to bear cost of providing
their own military equipment.
Gods of fire and water formed fully a athiard of those mentioned
in calendar.
Vesta's priestesses, Vestal virgins in their round temple in the
Forum, watched over the Penates of the ROman people and over the
fire, which might not be allowed to die. Took part in funerary
rites and in thoe productive of fecundity.
On August 24th, October 5th, and November 8th, mundus opened.
MUndus was a vaulted pit closed by a stone, the lapis manalis
(stone of Manes), connecting worlds of living and dead. \\
Dominated as they were by feeling of a universal presence, of a
divinity active and sometimes hostile, Romans wanted the peace of
the gods, pax deorum, i.e., assurance that beyond their own nature
and thier own human action they would not meet the hostile reaction
of the gods opposing itself to their own wills.
Desire expressed as PIETAS, an idea originally rooted in a magical
concepiton f the world but soon developing, on one hand, into
something more spiritual, and on other, into a degnerate,
legalistic formalism. Best way of maintaining ax deorum was to
maintain established order, performing rites which by satisfying
divine will prevented disturbance of balance between gods and men,
or restored balance once disturbed.
Pietas so was respect for relations between all beings in universe
and scrupulous performance of one's duties towards gods.
From end of sixth century temples were continually being built.
Agustus, e.g. restored eithgy two
Prayer preserved by Cato the Elder:
"Father Mars, I pray and beseech thee that thou be gracious and
merciful to me, my house and my household; to which intent I have
bidden this suvetaurilia (offering of a swine, rame, and aa bull)
to be led around my land, my gorund, my farm; tht thou keep away,
ward off, and remove sickness, seen and unseen, barrenness and
destrauction, ruin and unseasonable influence; and tht thou permit
my hrvests, my grain, my vineyards, and my plantations to flourisih
and to come to good issue, preserve in health my shepherds and my
flocks, and give good health and strength to me, my house and my
household. To this intent, to the intent of purifying my farm, my
land, my ground, and of making an expiation, as I have said, deign
to accept the offerings of these suckling victims: father Mars, to
the same intent deign to accept the offering of these suckling
victims. (de Re Rustica, 141,2-3)
Votum: vow, solemn promise of an offering to a deity in exchange for
the requested favor. As opposed to ordinary prayers, usually
accompanied by the prpopsed gift, the votum made the actual
presenttion of the offering condituional: quid pro quo
Exceptional formof votum was the devotio, by which a leader
voluntryisly sacrificed his own life to obtain victory; at once
prayer, votum and human sacrifice, devotio was still practised in
historical period
Games originally were thought of as exalting power of gods; in
historical period intended to ensrue for men goodwill of gods in
return for the spectacle offred tothem. Combats and races but
wpirit was not that of Greek games. For a long time they kept their
religious cahracter and only late did they evolved towards
athleticism. BEginning from belief tht spilled blood reinvigorated
divinity, games became a means of deciding which victim -- animal
or human -- pleased the god the most. Later, Romans kept in the
games, especially those exercises sueful for war or hunting. At
end of Reupblic and under Empre, games had become entirely profane;
it was most vulgar and cruel spectacles which rfetaiened public's
favor; chariot races, gladiatorial combats, naval battles, etc.
Number of games increased as did lengthy of time they continued.
Down to time of civil wars, new games only inaugurated in response
to genuine religious demand. After Sulla, such a demand became
hardlymore than a pretext for multiplying distractions for the
people.
Among these games, some were very ancient, e.g., Consualia and
Equiria, which were believed to be as old as Rome itself; and Roman
Games, instituted by Tarquinius Priscus. After these came the
Plebeian Games, and then games in honor of various gods:
Apollinares, Ceriales, Megaleneses, Florales, etc. At time of
Augustus they ococupied 65 days in the year; in foruth century CE
they occupied 175!
Priesthood
Organiziation did not involved special class or caste, as among
INdians (Brhamans, Celts (Druids) or Jews (Levites) As in Greece,
certain religious funcitosn wee preserve of certain families, but
most of them were performed by the magistrates. Three categories:
individiual, collegiate, and sodalities.
Individual priesthoods were those of the rex sacrorum and the
flamines. Res sacarorum stood at head of hierarchy; was priest of
Janus and thus presided in general way overa ll sacred ceremonies.
In Republican days wwas responsible for pax deorum, as king had
been earlier. After him in dignity came three senior flamines, in
service of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. Twelve minor flamines
responsbile for worship of deities (often half forgotten) to whom
they were attached.
Most ancient of sacred colleges was that of the Vestals, at first
four, then six and finally ten; chosen at age of six to ten years
by pontifex mansium. This latter, responsible for the cult of the
Capitoline triad and the fifth in the hierarchy, ws elected for
life by the college of pontiffs. This college was at first composed
of three or five members, then ine, twelve and finally fifteen, and
watched over maintenance of religious traditions, and knew about
every question concerning religion and ritual, pubic and private.
Every year, it fixed dates of movable feasts, and lsited allmarvels
of that year. The college of pontiffs gradually worked out a system
of authoritative law, the ius pontificale, which explains why their
president, though classed after the rex sacroroum and the senior
flamines, was real head of Roman religion.
College of augurs, as old as that of the pontiffs, whose
members were also chosen for life, was more specialised: it
assisted first the king and then the republican matistrates in
taking auspices. No acta could be performed without assnt of gods.
Examination of flight of birds, obsevation of sacred hens, and, for
installation of magistrates, interprettion of lightning flashes.
Augurs also interpreted portents which pontiffs decreed should be
expiated; so, like pontiffs, augurs were learned men, and their
tradition, continually enriched and revised was sthe disciplina
auguralis. If we except the haruspices, soothsayers, who had no
official position, can say that the only autorized intermediares
beteen gods and men were the augurs. Rome had neither oraces, so
numerous in Greece, nor prophets, so numerous int eh East. Fact is
significant: Roman distrusted direct conctacts with teh gods,w ith
whom he only dealth through strictly governed institutions and
practices.
College of Fetiales, also very old, comprised twelve members who
saw to it that the relations of Rome with her neighbors were
carried on comformably to rule of law. Performed rites required for
declaration or war or conclusion of peace, rites of a primitive,
magical characater which still by their solemnity and precise
minuteness, contributed to giving international relations a precise
legal base.
Quindecimviri sacris faciundis (name college finally acquired
under Sulla, when form an original two and later ten, becme
fifteen) was not ancient; its foundation result of a particualr
circustance. It grew out of a commission of two members created by
Tarquinius Superbus to keep and collect a collection of Greek and
Etruscan oracles attributed to Cumaean Sibyl. Quindecimviri were
especially concerned with religious innovations, whichit was their
task to watch over, control and canalize. Played important part in
introaecutin of Hellenistic rites and cults and often seemed to be
oppsoing the pontiffs, guardains of anceint forms of worship.
Sodalities were the religious brotherhoods which kept up
celebration of cults oder even than foundation of Rome, magical
character of which was no longer understood at end of Republican
era. Luperci, Salii honored Mars and Quirinus which processions
during which they beat the holy shilds while dancing the ripudium,
a dance in triple time. The Fratres Arvales served ancient
agricultural divinity Dea Dia; their rituals some details of which
have been preserved, included the tripudium and invocations and
offerings to wild dDMars and to the "Mother of the Lares", a
banefeful deity whose faovr were desired.
Song of Arval Brothers (Dessau ILS 5039) Inscription found in 1778
under apse of St. Peter's in ROme; Daated 218 CE, though song as
old as sixth century BCE Song sung in procession to trhee step tune
or beat.
Then the priessts, the doors being closed and thier robes girded
up, and taking their books danced the solem three step
(tripodiaverunt) and sang as follows:
Help us, O household gods ( 3 times)
Let no harm or danger, O Marmar, attack our people! (3 TIMES)
Be thou satisfied, O fierce Mars!
Leap over the threshold!
Stand Still! Beat (the ground) (3 times)
In alternate chant adress all (the gods) of sowing (3 times)
Help us, O Marmor! (3 TIMES)
rEJOICE! (5 times)
After the three step dance, at a given signal, the public slaves
came in and gathered up the books.
These sodalities, important for the reconstruction of religious
mentality of primitive times, no longer played any real part in
religion of historical period.