Word numen, meaning “nod” or “divine power” used to indicate mysterious presence of godhead in natural or man-made objects –e.g., boundary stone, the terminus. According to animistic theories of Roman religion, Terminus was an example of the earliest form of Roman deity. It was never represented anthropomorphically, but always seen as divine power residing in boundary stone. Word numen itself was standard Latin term for the pre-anthropomorphic “divinities” of the early period. In fact, word hardly occurs in what survives of early Latin and is more likely that it came to mean “divine power” only in later literature, having had nothing at all to do with early forms of the gods.
Ovid, Fasti II. 639-46:
When night has ended, the god who by his presence marks the divisions of the fields should receive his traditional reverence. You too, Terminus, have had divine power (numen) from ancient times – sometimes in the form of a stone, sometimes a stump buried in the field. The two farmers crown you from their opposite sides, each of them bringing you a garland and each a cake.
Ritual practice of early Roman religion is for the most part unknown. Occasionally a later writer quotes words of a ceremony, claiming they reflect words used at an earlier time.
E.g. Ritual of fetiales
The fetial priests were concerned with rituals that marked the declaration of wars and the making of treaties. In this passage, Livy supplies a specific context for the origin of some of their duties and law (ius fetiale) by making King Ancus (4th king, 642-617 B.C.) inventor of their rituals for declaration of war.
Livy, I. 32.6-14
When the legate arrives at the frontier of those from whom restitution is demanded, he covers his head with a fillet (of wool) and says, “Hear thou, Jupiter, hear, boundaries of –naming whatever nation they belong to—let divine law hear! I am the official herald of the Roman people; I come lawfully and piously commissioned, let there be trust in my words.” Then he sets forth his demands, after which he takes Jupiter to witness: “If I unjustly and impiously demand that these men and these goods be surrendered to men, then never let me be a full citizen of my fatherland.” …. The usual procedure was for the fetialis to carry to the boundary of the other nation a spear of iron or fire-hardened cornel wood, and in the presence of not less that three adult males to say: “Forasmuch as the tribes of the Ancient Latins and men of the Ancient Latins have committed act and offence against the Roman people, and forasmuch as the Roman people have ordained that war be declared on the Ancient Latins, and the senate of the Roman people has affirmed, agreed, and with their votes approved that there be war with the ancient Latins, I therefore, and the Roman people, declare and make war on the tribes of the Ancient Latins and the men of the Ancient Latins.” Having said this he would hurl the spear across their boundary. This is the manner in which at that time redress was demanded of the Latins and war was declared and it has been accepted by subsequent generations.
Iguvine Tables Via 1-31
Iguvium (Gubbio) in Umbria; bronze tablets inscribed in Umbrian
The arsfertur shall begin this ritual with
observation of birds – a green woodpecker and a crow on the right, a woodpecker
and a magpie on the left. He who shall go to observe the calling birds shall,
seated, command the arsfertur from the hut as follows:
”Demand that I observe a green woodpecker on the right, a crow on the right, a
woodpecker on the left, a magpie on the left, birds on the left, sacred calling
birds on the left.” The arsfertur
shall make the demand in these words: “There observe a green woodpecker on the
right…sacred calling birds on the left, for me, for the city of Iguvium, the
this station which has been established.”
While the one who goes to observe the callingbirds is seated in the
chair, no one is to make a sound and no one else is to sit in the way until he
who has gone to observe the calling birds has returned. If there is a noise or
if anyone else sits in the way, he shall declare the ceremony null and void.
(8) The templum where the arsfertur remains for the sake of purifying the Mount when established is defined as follows: from the lowest corner, which is closest to the altar of the gods, to the topmost corner which is closest to the stone of augury, then from the topmost corner at the stones of augury to the city boundary, from the bottom corner at the altar of the gods to the city boundary. Then he shall make observations on both sides of the city boundaries.
(12) The city boundaries: from the stones of augury to the exists, to the observation post, to the fore-area of Nurpius, to the Vale, to the temple of Smurcia, to the house of Miletina,to the third tower of the rampart; from the stones of augury to the avenue of Vesticius, to the garden of Rufer, to the house of Nonia, to the house of Slius, to the avenue of Hoius, to the gate of Padella.
(15) Below these boundaries which have been written down above, he shall watch for a green woodpecker on the right, a crow on the right. Above these boundaries he shall observe a woodpecker on the left, a magpie on the left. If the calling birds sign forth, she shall make the following announcement seated in the hut, and he shall call the arsfertur by name: “A green woodpecker on the right….” In all these rites for the lustration of the people and for the purification of the Mount, he shall hold the ritual rod. The vessels at the Trublan Gates which shall be shown for the sake of purifying the Mount, he shall show them in such a way that fire be given to be kindled from fire.
(22) Before the Trubulan Gates he shall sacrifice three oxen to Jupiter Grabovius. He shall speak these words as he presents the sacrificial cake: “Thee I invoke in invocation, Jupiter Graboviius, for the Fisian Mount, for the city of Iguvium, for the name of the mount, for the name of the city. Be favorable, be propitious….Jupiter Grabovius, keep safe the Fisian Mount, keep safe the city of Iguvium.”
Lavinium (Practica die Mare, 30 km south of Rome)
Unlike Alba Longa, site unknown, now excavated. Lavinium was believed to have been founded by Aneneas when he landed in Italy.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 1.57.1
“Aeneas sacrificed the sow with her young to his ancestral gods (Penates brought from Troy) on the spot where now stands the hut which the Lavinians hold sacred and make inaccessible to others. Then after commanding the Trojans to shift their camp to the hill, he placed the images of the gods in the best part of it and immediately made preparations for the building of the city…”
Excavations at Lavinium revealed a row of thirteen imposing altars in an open sanctuary outside the town. Earliest date back to sixth century B.C. Not far away was a burial mound which was at end of fourth century remodeled into a shrine (mentioned as dedicated to Aeneas).
On other side of Lavinum, sanctuary produced evidence of religious activity. Fragments of terracotta statues of Minerva. May be Athena as patron deity of Troy who according to Strabo (V. 34.5) had a statue at Lavinium. But details of dress, armor, and figure of Triton (man with a fish’s tail) suggest that it was a specific Greek type from Athena’s sanctuary of Alalkomenai in Boeotia and evoking legend of her birth from a stream called Triton close by.
Grove at Aricia
Grove of Diana, home to slave-priest celebrated in Golden Bough.
Cato, Origines, fr. 58
“Egerius Baebius of Tusculum, the dictator of the Latins, made the dedication of Diana’s lucus in the grove of Aricia. These peoples were the sharers: the people of Tusculum, Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurens, Cora, Tibur, Pometia, Rutulan Ardea…”
Coin showing Triple Diana
Three figures may represent different aspects of Diana: goddess as Diana the huntress; as Hekate, goddess of underworld; and as goddess of the Moon.
Sanctuary of Diana at Rome
Rome attained hegemony of a Latin League reputedly in the time of Servius Tullius (6th king, 578-535). In Livy’s account, it was construction of a new federal sanctuary to Diana on the Aventine Hill, perhaps conceived as rival to sanctuary at Aricia, that secured supremacy of Rome. (Livy 1.45)
GENS
Gens (family or clan) was a major focus of social, military and religious life. Though traditions of Roman gens seem later to have declined in importance, did not die out. For religious associations of gens Iiulia (Family of Caesar and Augustus) took on great importance in first century B.C.
Archaeological evidence, much recently discovered, shows that by the sixth century B.C. Romans were exchanging cults, artistic skills and ideas with Greeks, Etruscans, even Carthaginians. Discoveries have overturned a view that scholars commonly held that Rome in the early centuries preserved in a pure form the original unchanging religion of the Latin race.
Servius Tullius said to have founded a pair of temples in the city to Fortuna and Mater Matuta. Excavations near Church of St. Omobono between Forum and Forum Boarium revealed a pair of temples of exactly right date which may be those of Servius Tullius.
Dedication to Castor and Pollux at Lavinium
ILLRP 1271a
To Castor and Pollux, the Dioskouri (Casstorei Podlouqueique quorois)
In Roman Forum at west e d, area known as comitium, was an ancient shrine to Vulcan, Volcanal. Covered by a later paving of Forum, but excavations reveal clear Greek influence.
Fragment of an Athenian pt (570560 BC) most ancient of objects found associated with Volcanal. Depicts Hephaestus, eventually identified with Vulcan, as god of fire and metalworking, returning to Olympus, riding on a donkey.
Sibylline Books (6th century B.C.)
Arrival of Sibylline books, collection of written oracles kept at Rome under the charge of the quindecimviri, purportedly texts of the utterances of Sibyl of Cumae. In this period Rome developed contacts with Greek cities of South Italy, including home of Sibyl at Cumae.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities iv.62
“There is a tradition that another exceptional piece of good fortune came to the city of Rome during Tarquin’s reign, a blessing conferred by some god or power. This was not just a passing benefit, but one that saved Rome from disasters throughout its whole history. A foreign woman, approached the tyrant and offered to sell him nine books of Sibylline Oracles; Tarquin refused to buy at her price, so she went away and burned three of the nine. Then she brought the six remaining ones and offered them for the same price as she had asked before. They thought her stupid and laughed at her, because she was asking the very same price for fewer books…; but she just went off again and burned half those that were left. Then she came back with three remaining and asked for the same price once again. Tarquin, now becoming curious about the woman’s intention, sent for the augures, told them what had happened and asked them what he should do. They realized by certain signs that what he had rebuffed was a gift from the gods; so, they told him that it was a disaster that he had not bought all the books and advised him to pay the woman the whole price she was asking and to get the oracles that were still left. The woman handed over the books, told him to take the greatest care of them and vanished from human sight.”
Etruscan influence increased at end of regal period and in this time notice presence of Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) whose prominence almost effaced triad of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus.
Temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
Livy, 1.55.1
“After the recovery of Gabii, Tarquin the Proud made peace with the Aequi, and renewed his treaty with the Etruscans. He then turned his attention to business at home. His first concern was that the temple of Jupiter on the Tarpeian hill should be left as the monument of his reign and of his royal line; of the two Tarquinian kings, the farther (elder) had vowed it, the some would have completed it.”
GODS
Throughout Roman history, Roman religion was polytheistic: numerous deities were worshipped. Modern scholars like the Romans themselves, may speculate on origins of the earliest, on how the polytheistic system began, or on what might have preceded it. But this speculation should obscure two clear and important facts: first, that there was already a complex system of polytheism as far back as we can trace the city of Rome; second, that at every period of pagan Roman history the Romans invented or imported new deities, while, at the same time, neglecting or even forgetting others.
Lares, protecting spirits of place, were worshipped in various contexts: in the house, at the crossroads, in city as guardians of state. Lares familiares (household) are best known, receiving offerings, sacrifices and prayers within the household and commonly appealed to as protectors of its safety and prosperity. No stories attached to them nor were they defined as individual personalities.
From at least fourth century B.C. (probably much earlier) a range of deities was introduced personifying qualities or forces in Roman life: Concordia, Fides, Spes, etc. These were commonly represented in anthropomorphic form, but in other respects unpersonalized abstractions.
Cicero: DND ii.60-2
The wisest men of Greece as well as our own ancestors defined and named many other kinds of gods after the great benefits they bestow – with good reason. For they believed that whatever brought great advantage to the human race could come about only through divine benevolence towards men. So sometimes they called what was produced by a god by the name of the deity itself, as when we refer to ‘wheat’ as Ceres or to ‘wine’ as ‘Liber’. This explains the line of Terence (Eunuchus 732)
Without Ceres
and without Liber Venus is cold.
Or sometimes conversely a deity is named after a particular quality that contains some powerful force, like Fides and Mens. We can see shrines on the Capitol recently dedicated to this pair by Marcus Aemiliius Scaurus, while Fides had been consecrated before that by Aulus Atilius Calatinus….In the case of all these things, because they have such force that they could not possibly be controlled except by a god, the quality itself has been designated divine. In the same category the names of Cupido and Voluptas and Venus Lubentina have been consecrated. They may be corrupting and unnatural qualities (although Velleiius thinks otherwise), yet those very vices often have a stronger impact on our character. So those deities who gave rise to various benefits owe their deification to the size of the benefits they bestowed; and in fact those names I just mentioned make clear the power that resides in each god.
Argument based on Stocicism which intended to prove not only that gods exist but that they also care for humans.
Velleius in Cicero’s dialogue De Natura Deorum, argues from standpoint of Epicureanism: DND 1.46-48
Concerning the appearance of the gods we have both the hints offered by nature as well as the teaching of reason. It is clearly due to nature that all people of all races conceive of the gods in none other but human form. For in what other shape do they ever appear to anyone, either awake or asleep? But not to reduce everything to the most basic concepts, reason itself proves the same thing. For it seems logical that what is naturally the highest form of existence, whether because of its supreme happiness or because of its immortality, should also be the most beautiful. And what arrangement of limbs, what cast of features, what shape or form can be more beautiful than the human? You Stoics at least, Lucilius…tend to portray the skill of the divine creator by describing not only the utility but also the beauty of all the parts of the human figure. But if the human figure is superior to the form of all living things, and a god is a living thing, then a god surely has the most beautiful form of all; and since it is agreed that the gods are supremely happy, and that no one can be happy without virtue, and that virtue cannot exist with out reason, and that reason can be found nowhere but in the human figure, then it must be conceded that the gods have human form. But this form is not really corporeal, but merely resembles a human body; it does not have blood, merely the semblance of blood.
Ovid, Fasti vi. 249-300; 319-348
Vesta, grant us your favor. It is in homage to you that we now open our mouths, if we may come to your sacred festival. I was deep in prayer. I felt the presence of the heavenly deity, and the glad earth radiated a purple light. Not of course that I actually saw you, my lady…,and it was not in any case proper that a mortal should look upon you; but my ignorance and my errors were corrected spontaneously, without the aid of any teacher.
(257) It is said that Rome had celebrated the Parilia forty times when the goddess, the guardian of the flame, was received in her temple. It was the work of the peaceful king, the most god-fearing character ever born in the Sabine land. The buildings you now see roofed in bronze, in that long distant time you would have seen roofed in thatch, and the walls were woven with tough osiers. This little spot which now supports the Hall of Vesta was then the great palace of unshaven Numa. Yet the shape of the temple, as it still exists today, is said to have been the same as in those early days, and a good reason underlies the choice of that shape.
(267) Vesta is the same as the earth. Perpetual fire constitutes them both, Earth and the hearth both stand for her dwelling place. The earth is like a ball, resting on no support; its enormous weight hangs on the air that stretches beneath. Its own rotation keeps the sphere in balance, and it has no angle that might push it in one direction. And seeing that it is placed in the middle of everything and touches no side more or less, if it were not spherical in shape, it would be nearer to one side than another, and the universe would not have the earth as its central weight. …The appearance of the temple (of Vesta) is the same: it has no projecting angle; a dome protects it from the showers of rain.
(283) Why, you ask, is the goddess tended by virgin protected by virgin priestesses? I will discover the proper reasons for this also. It is said that Ceres and Juno were born of Ops from the seed of Saturn; Vesta was the third daughter. The first two married; and both are said to have borne children. Of the three only one remained who refused marriage. Is it surprising if a virgin goddess delights in a virgin priestess and only allows chaste hands to enter her sacred rites? Think of Vesta as nothing other than living flame, and you see that no substance is born of flame. Rightly, therefore, is she a virgin goddess – who produces no seed nor takes any and loves the company of virgins.
(295) Fool that I was – for a long time I believed that there were statues of Vesta. Then I learned that there are none under the curved dome. Any undying flame is hidden in that temple, but there is no image of Vesta herself nor of the fire. The earth stands by its own force. The name Vesta comes from ’vi stando’. The explanation of her Greek name may be similar.
(319) Shall I pass on, or shall I tell of your disgrace, red-faced Priapus? It’s a short tale, but amusing. Cybele, whose brow is crowned with a coronet of towers, invited the immortal gods to her party. She invited the satyrs too, and those rustic deities, the nymphs. Silenus was there, though no one had invited him. It is forbidden – and it would take too long—to sing of the banquet of the gods. The night was spent in heavy drinking without sleeping. Some wandered here and there in the valleys of shady Ida; others lay down and rested their limbs on the soft grass; some played; some were overwhelmed by sleep; others linked arms and danced on the green grass with the triple beat of their swift feet. Vesta lies down; and carefree takes her peaceful rest just as she was, her head resting on the turf. But the red-faced keeper of the gardens is chasing nymphs and goddesses; back and forth he turns his wandering steps. He spots Vesta too. It is not clear whether he mistook her for a nymph or knew it was Vesta. He himself claims he did not know. At any rate, he gets up hops of sex and tries to creep up on her secretly, tiptoeing forward with racing heart. As it happened, old Silenus had left the ass, on which he had ridden, on the banks of a gently murmuring stream. The god of the long Hellespont was just going to lay hold of her, when the ass let out an ill-timed bray. Frightened by the deep sound, the goddess jumped up.The whole crowd rushed over, but he managed to escape through the midst of the hands that wanted to catch him. It is the custom in Lampsacus to sacrifice this animal to Priapus saying,, “We give to the flames the innards of the tell-tale ass.” It is he, goddess, that you adorn with a necklace of loaves in memory of his services. Work ceases; the mills are empty and silent.